pennyspoetryfandomcom-20200214-history
Meter
In poetry, meter (metre in British English) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular order. The study of meters and forms of versification is known as prosody. (Within linguistics, "prosody" is used in a more general sense that includes not only poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of prose, whether formal or informal, which vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions.) Qualitative vs. quantitative meter The meter of much poetry of the Western world and elsewhere is based on particular patterns of syllables of particular types. The familiar type of meter in English-language poetry is called qualitative meter, with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g. in iambic pentameter, typically every even-numbered syllable). Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g. the last) needs to be fixed. The meter of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but still was based on stress patterns. Many classical languages, however, use a different scheme known as quantitative meter, where patterns are based on syllable weight rather than stress. In dactylic hexameter of Classical Latin and Classical Greek, for example, each of the six feet making up the line was either a dactyl (long-short-short) or spondee (long-long), where a long syllable was literally one that took longer to pronounce than a short syllable: specifically, a syllable consisting of a long vowel or diphthong or followed by two consonants. The stress pattern of the words made no difference to the meter. A number of other ancient languages also used quantitative meter, such as Sanskrit and Classical Arabic (but not Biblical Hebrew). Feet In most Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse can be described as a sequence of feet, each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types â€” such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry). Iambic pentameter , the most common meter in English poetry, is a sequence of five iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one ("da-DUM") : This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, and Sappho. Note that some meters have an overall rhythmic pattern to the line that cannot easily be described using feet. This occurs in Sanskrit poetry; see Vedic meter and Sanskrit meter). (Although this poetry is in fact specified using feet, each "foot" is more or less equivalent to an entire line.) However, it also occurs in some Western meters, such as the hendecasyllable favored by Catullus, which can be described approximately as "DUM-DUM-DUM-da-da-DUM-da-DUM-da-DUM-da", with some variation allowed in the first two syllables. Half-lines In place of using feet, alliterative verse of old Germanic languages such as Old English and Old Norse divided each line into two half-lines. Each half-line had to follow one of five or so patterns, each of which defined a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables, typically with two stressed syllables per line. Unlike typical Western poetry, however, the number of unstressed syllables could vary somewhat. For example, the common pattern "DUM-da-DUM-da" could allow between one and five unstressed syllables between the two stresses. The following is a famous example, taken from The Battle of Maldon: Hige sceal Ã¾e heardra, || heorte Ã¾e cÄ“nre, mÅd sceal Ã¾e mÄre, || swÄ Å«re mÃ¦gen lÈ³tlaÃ° ("Will must be the harder, courage the bolder, spirit must be the more, as our might lessens.") In the quoted section, the stressed syllables have been underlined. (Normally, the stressed syllable must be long if followed by another syllable in a word. However, by a rule known as syllable resolution, two short syllables in a single word are considered equal to a single long syllable. Hence, sometimes two syllables have been underlined, as in hige and mÃ¦gen.) The first three half-lines have the type A pattern "DUM-da-(da-)DUM-da", while the last one has the type C pattern "da-(da-da-)DUM-DUM-da", with parentheses indicating optional unstressed syllables that have been inserted. Note also the pervasive pattern of alliteration, where the first and/or second stress alliterate with the third, but not with the fourth. Caesurae Another component of a verse's meter are the caesurae (literally, cuts), which are not pauses but compulsory word boundaries which occur after a particular syllabic position in every line of a poem. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. For example, in the verse below, each odd line has a caesura (shown by a slash /') after the fourth syllable (daily, her, won'dring, mother) while each even line is without a caesura: :'Dai'ly, '''dai'ly, / '''sing to Mar'y, :'Sing my soul her prais'''es '''due: :All her feasts, her / ac'tions '''hon'or, :'''With the heart's de'vo'tion true. :Now in won'd'ring / '''con'tem'pla'tion, :'''Be her ma'jes'ty con'fessed'; :Call her Mo'''ther / '''call her Vir'gin, :'Hap'py '''Mo'ther, 'Vir'gin '''blest. A caesura would split the word "devotion" in the fourth line or the word "majesty" in the sixth line. Metric variations Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a trochee ("DUM-da"). Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci': :And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet) :Fast withereth too (2 feet) Source: Cummings Study Guides A line of one foot, is called monometer; two feet, dimeter; three is trimeter; four is tetrameter; five is pentameter; six is hexameter, seven is heptameter and eight is octameter. For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it's called iambic pentameter. If the feet are primarily dactyls and there are six to a line, then it's dactylic hexameter. Meter in other languages History Metrical texts are first attested in early Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the Rigveda. That the texts of the Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the Hebrew Bible, e.g. by Gustav Bickell"Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882 or Julius Ley,"Leitfaden der Metrik der hebrÃ¤ischen Poesie", 1887 but they remained inconclusivethe Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'. (see Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to Homer and Hesiod. Latin verse survives from the Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c. BC), in the Saturnian meter. Persian poetry arises in the Sassanid era. Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European Minnesang, TrouvÃ¨re or Bardic poetry, Classical Persian and Sanskrit poetry, Tang dynasty Chinese poetry or the Japanese Heian period Man'yÅshÅ«. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of Shakespeare and Milton. Dissent Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of poetry. 20th-century American poets Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, and Robinson Jeffers, were poets who believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses". Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic lines from her famous poem "Poetry" illustrate her contempt for meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent): ::::nor is it valid ::::::to discriminate against "business documents and ::school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction :::::however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. See also * Foot (prosody) * Line (poetry) * List of classical meters * Meter (music) * Poetry explication * Francisco de Quevedo Notes References *Hollander, John. Rhymeâ€™s Reason: A Guide to English Verse (1981) Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02740-0 *Deutsch, Babette. "Poetry Handbook" (1957) ISBN13: 9780064635486 ISBN10: 0064635481 *Ciardi, John. "How Does a Poem Mean?" (1959) Houghton Mifflin ASIN: B002CCGG8O bg:Ð’ÐµÑ€ÑÐ¸Ñ„Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ñ†Ð¸Ñ ca:MÃ¨trica (poesia) cs:ProzÃ³die (poezie) da:Metrik (verslÃ¦re) de:VersfuÃŸ es:MÃ©trica eo:Piedo (poetiko) eu:Metrika (informatika) fa:ÙˆØ²Ù† Ø´Ø¹Ø± fr:MÃ©trique (poÃ©sie) gan:éŸ»å¾‹ ko:ìš´ìœ¨ hi:à¤›à¤‚à¤¦ io:Metriko id:Metrum it:ikiMetrica he:×ž×©×§×œ (×©×™×¨×”) la:Metrum (poesis) lv:PantmÄ“rs hu:IdÅ‘mÃ©rtÃ©kes verselÃ©s ml:à´µàµƒà´¤àµà´¤à´‚ (à´›à´¨àµà´¦à´ƒà´¶à´¾à´¸àµà´¤àµà´°à´‚) nl:Metrum ja:éŸ»å¾‹ (éŸ»æ–‡) no:Metrikk pl:Metrum (poetyka) pt:MÃ©trica (poesia) ru:ÐœÐµÑ‚Ñ€ (ÑÑ‚Ð¸Ñ…Ð¾ÑÐ»Ð¾Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ðµ) fi:Runomitta sv:VersmÃ¥tt ta:à®¯à®¾à®ªà¯à®ªà®¿à®²à®•à¯à®•à®£à®®à¯ uk:Ð’Ñ–Ñ€ÑˆÐ¾Ð²Ð¸Ð¹ Ñ€Ð¾Ð·Ð¼Ñ–Ñ€ war:Sukol (siday) Meter (poetry)